X Международная студенческая научная конференция Студенческий научный форум - 2018
FAMOUS SCIENTISTS
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People tell us the colors and the marbles of Michelangelo, not omnipotent and not omnipotent, but God-like. There lives a beauty of the spirit of God. And the human mind is also brodarstvo, echoed by Galileo. Our mind cannot equal divine, infinite in its capabilities, but one who knows the language of logic and mathematics, drawing eyes to nature, acquire knowledge of the same reliability, what is God. People around may have to rely on your mind because it is the gift of God. Such was the faith of the great era.
Galilei belonged to a noble but impoverished Florentine family. His father Vincenzo, a well-known musician and music theorist, has done much to develop the abilities of the son. Parents were the first teachers of Galileo. Thanks to them, the boy received his primary classical, musical and literary education.
In 1575, the family returned to Florence, where 11-year-old, Galileo was sent to a secular school at the monastery. Here he studied languages, rhetoric, poetry, music, art and simple mechanics. The boy was so fascinated with these objects that he wanted to become a painter and a musician. However, Vincenzo insisted that the son assisted him in the cloth trade. Galileo was taken from school at the age of 15, but seeing the extraordinary abilities of his son, the parents decided to send him to University. They wanted to see her first child doctor.
In September 1581, Galileo became a student of the University of Pisa. He settled at a relative's house and lived on a stipend. Galileo studied mostly alone, looking textbooks on medicine, the works of Aristotle and especially Plato, whose love for the mathematical mind. He became interested in the manufacture of machinery, which were described in the writings of Archimedes. The independence of the thinking of Galileo, his thoughtful arguments has puzzled teachers and the students called him a bully, because the debate about the works of Aristotle often turned into sharp ridicule Galileo over the opponent.
In 1582 he made a couple of pendulums. Watching their swings, Galileo discovered the law of isochronism oscillations: the period of oscillation of a load suspended on a thread, depends on the length of the filament and does not depend on the mass and amplitude of oscillations.
In the second year Galileo went to a lecture on geometry, was fond of mathematics and was very sorry that can not give up medicine. In the fourth year of training, he has not appointed a scholarship. It was at this time he first became acquainted with the physics of Aristotle, the works of the ancient mathematicians - Euclid and Archimedes (the latter became his real teacher).
Left without money, in 1585 (his father had nothing to pay for further education), Galileo returned to Florence. Here he managed to find a wonderful math teacher, Ostilio Ricci, who in his classes discussed not only purely mathematical problems, but also applied mathematics to practical mechanics, especially hydraulics. The result of four years of the Florentine period of his life, Galileo was the short essay "a Small hydrostatic balance" (La bilancetta, 1586).
Work pursued a purely practical purpose: to improve the already known method of hydrostatic weighing, Galileo used it to determine the density of metals and precious stones. He made several handwritten copies of his work and tried to distribute them. This way, he met the famous mathematician of that time - the Marquis Guido Ubaldo del Monte, the author of a Textbook on mechanics. Monte immediately appreciated the abilities of the young scientist and, occupying a high post of inspector-General of all the fortresses and fortifications in the Duchy of Tuscany, Galileo was able to provide an important service: his recommendation in 1589 the latter obtained the professorship of mathematics in the University of Pisa, where he was a student. The time of Galileo, the Department in Pisa refers to his work On motion (De Motu, 1590).
In it, he first argues against the Aristotelian doctrine of the fall of bodies. Later, these arguments were formulated in the form of the law on the proportionality of the path traversed by a body to the square of the fall time (according to Aristotle, "in a vacuum all bodies fall infinitely fast").
In 1591 his father died of Galileo, and he had to take care of other family members. Fortunately, the Marquis del Monte had made for his protégé more corresponded to his abilities: in 1592, Galileo took the chair of mathematics at the University of Padua in the Venetian Republic. He had to teach geometry, mechanics, astronomy. The course of astronomy he read, while remaining within the formally accepted views of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and even wrote a short course in geocentric astronomy. However, his actual views on the universe were very different, as indicated by the following lines from a letter to Kepler (4 August 1597):
"The opinion of Copernicus (heliocentric system) I came here many years ago and, based on it, found the causes of many natural phenomena."
In the first years of his professorship, Galileo was engaged primarily in the development of a new mechanics built on the principles of Aristotle. He formulated more clearly the "Golden rule of mechanics", which is brought from the open to the more General principle formulated in the Treatise on mechanics (Le Meccaniche, 1594).
In this treatise, written for students, Galileo laid out the foundations of the theory of simple machines, using the concept of moment of force. This work and notes on astronomy, spreading among the students, created author fame not only in Italy but also in other European countries. In addition, in the oral teaching of Galileo often used the Italian language that were attracted to his lectures many students. Of Padua in the period of Galileo's life (1592-1610) is ripe for his major work in the field of dynamics: motion of a body on an inclined plane and a body thrown at an angle to the horizon; to this time belong the studies on strength of materials. However, of all his works of that time Galileo had published only a small booklet about the invention with the compass, allows you to make various calculations and plotting.
The first writings of Galileo was interested in the inspector of the Tuscan military fortifications, astronomer and geometer, Guidobaldo del Monte. They became friends and organized in Florence, a circle of science lovers. Galilee became known. In 1589 he was appointed Professor of mathematics at the University of Pisa. The salary of the Professor of mathematics was 50 times less than the salary of professors of medicine, but Galileo was satisfied. He could start an independent life and to engage in research activities.
The duties Galileo was lecturing on geometry, natural philosophy and astronomy of Aristotle - Ptolemy. In lectures on the philosophy of Galileo has often challenged the physical ideas of Aristotle and then experimented to clearly prove his innocence. For example, he demonstrated the movement of the balls the same size wood and metal on a smooth inclined chute. Experience has shown that the acceleration of the balls depends only on the angle of the trough and does not depend on mass. This contradicted the statement of Aristotle that the speed of a falling body is greater, the greater the mass of the body. His first experiences and reflections on the laws of falling bodies, Galileo was put in a little work On motion (1590).
In the autumn of 1592 Galileo got the chair of mathematics in one of the oldest universities in Europe, Padua. Padua was part of the powerful Venetian Republic. She was elected Shakespeare scene for his "Othello" (Shakespeare and Galileo are the same age). At the University Galileo read the same courses in Euclidean geometry, Ptolemy's astronomy and Aristotle's physics. He always was a brilliant lecturer, but now did not allow himself any attacks against the medieval authorities:
Giordano Bruno, captured here in Venice, has been sitting in the dungeons of the Inquisition.
Padua period - the heyday of scientific activity of Galileo. It was the happiest in his life. The listeners of his public lectures were the young aristocrats who wanted to obtain education in the field of military-engineering disciplines. For them, Galileo lectured on fortification and ballistics. He opened a workshop in Pisa, which produced various mechanisms and instruments, including invented. Here was the thermoscope made by Galileo, the precursor of the modern thermometer, and a device for measuring the frequency of the metronome. Manuscripts of his lectures, textbooks on mechanics and astronomy was very popular not only in Italy but throughout Europe.
In 1597 began a correspondence with Galileo Johann Kepler. Kepler sent Galileo his first book "the Mystery of the Universe", written with the Copernican position. Galileo replied to Kepler, which also shares the view of Copernicus:
"Based on his point of view, I found the causes of many natural phenomena. I have written rebuttals to many arguments of the supporters of Ptolemy, but is still hesitant to let them into the light, being terrified by the fate of our teacher Copernicus. A few he enjoys immortal fame, and endless - this is the number of fools is he ridiculed and booed. I'd be braver if there were more people like you... what a pity that few people who seek truth and not follow silly way of philosophizing".
10 Oct 1604 in the constellation Ophiuchus broke the previously unknown star. The maximum Shine it was brighter than Jupiter. Galileo observed it before the end of 1605 it is Now known that it was a supernova explosion in our Galaxy. Galileo dedicated the star of three lectures at the University, which received more than a thousand people. Many were interested in a new light. The star was in the same place of the celestial sphere, so Galileo claimed that she is much further from Earth than the Moon and planets. He proposed the following hypothesis: a new star is a dense accumulation of earthly fumes, illuminated by the Sun. This accumulation rose to the area of the sphere of fixed stars. In the hypothesis of Galileo there is nothing that is later confirmed, and his lectures teach only the fact that always in nature there are phenomena that are impossible to explain, even approximately correctly.
Two of Galileo's telescope, preserved in the Museum of history of science Florence
Rumors that Holland invented telescope reached Venice in may 1609, Galileo went to Padua and was involved in the construction of such a tool in his workshop. The first night he figured out how it works, and made a pipe with a three-fold increase.
In August 1609 Galileo Galilei produced a tube with a magnification of 30 times. The tube had a length of 1245 mm; lens she had a convex lens with a diameter of 53 mm, and flat-bent eyepiece had an optical power of -25 diopters . Used there was not ophthalmic glass, as is commonly thought with the filing of Galilee. He apparently understood how to set the increase in the pipe, but I prefer not to write. His telescope was much more powerful and better than all the telescopes of the time. But most importantly, Galileo first realized that the main purpose of a telescope is the observation of celestial bodies. With a 30-fold pipe, Galileo did all of his telescopic discoveries. She still kept in the Museum in Florence.
Note that for 400 years after Galileo telescopically only reached 60-times the resolution of ground-based telescopes, that is 1 second of arc. The resolution limitation is called the turbulent movement of atmospheric air, and because of this, blurring the image of the star down to 1 - 3 seconds. The only significant advantage of modern ground-based telescopes is their intensity: for large diameter optics they gather more light, and there is the possibility of observing very faint objects.
One of the tubes Galileo presented to the Venetian Doge (the ruler) as a tool for early detection of the enemy fleet. As a result, he was richly rewarded and for life appointed Professor of the University of Padua with a pay raise three times.
First of all, Galileo began observing the moon. He saw a lunar landscape - circuses and craters, mountain ranges and peaks, making out in the telescope cast their shadows. He also examined several large dark low-lying areas that are called seas. The surface of the moon was similar to earth. On the basis of his observations, Galileo concluded that the Moon is as rocky body like Earth.
Drawing of the moon made by Galileo with the telescope.
Next, the horoscope drawn up for them.
Galileo discovered the phases of Venus and discovered the four satellites of Jupiter that are now called the Galilean. Galileo's telescope was first put on the stars of some misty patches in the sky. For example, the solid glow of the milky Way was a giant cluster of stars. Thus, Galileo was the discoverer of the Galaxy. The stars have lost their apparent size, and it became clear that they are indeed very far from the Earth, as predicted by Copernicus.
In the night of 7 January 1610 Galileo Galilei discovered near Jupiter's three stars. During subsequent observations, he was convinced that he had seen the satellites that remain near Jupiter, changing its position relative to it.
In March 1610, he published an essay Galileo's "the Starry messenger, revealing great and supremely awesome spectacle...", news the world about new astronomical discoveries. On the moon he wrote:
"The lunar surface is not completely smooth, devoid of any irregularities and perfectly spherical, as suggested by one philosophical school. On the contrary, the surface is very irregular, dotted with pits and elevations, just as the surface of the Earth that is everywhere crossed by high mountains and deep valleys".
Galileo was able to estimate the height of lunar mountains along the length of the shadows, having a value of about 7 km. He was watching the "ashen light" of the moon disk near phase of the new moon, explaining to him that the dark surface of the moon at this time is illuminated by sunlight reflected from the earth's surface.
His observations of the moons of Jupiter, Galileo wrote:
"Even though I took them for fixed stars, I was surprised by their location exactly on the same straight line parallel to the Ecliptic... the Two stars was located to the East and one to the West... But when I in the will of God repeated observations on 8 January, they found a completely different location - all three stars were standing to the West of Jupiter, closer to him and to each other...".
And further:
"There can be no doubt that they perform their revolutions around Jupiter, and together with him in twelve years - a turnover near the center of the world...
We purchased an excellent argument against those who, accepting the Copernican system with the motion of the planets around the Sun, so disconcerted the annual circulation of the moon along with the Earth around the Sun, which reject this world system. But now there is not only one planet orbiting around another and along with the latest - around the Sun, but four, and traveling around Jupiter and around the Sun".
Never has a scientific discovery did not produce such a stunning impression on the cultural world. Galileo became famous. The French king Henry IV gave to understand that if the scientist in honor of him called any star, it will be richly rewarded. Galileo became an extraordinary Professor at Pisa University (thus he was not obliged to lecture) and received the title of the First mathematician and philosopher of the Grand Duke of Tuscany.
However, the official scientific world met "the Starry messenger" with a grain of salt. Galileo sent a copy of the book to Kepler and asked for support. Kepler wrote a response and published it, calling "Conversation with the Starry messenger". In the "Conversation" Kepler expressed full confidence in the thoroughness of Galileo's observations. It is suggested for the "stars" of Jupiter and moon, the new name of Sputnik, convinced that there are satellites or other planets.
Friendly support Kepler was very important to Galileo. In response to "Talk," Galileo wrote:
"Laugh, my Kepler, the great stupidity of the human. What to say about the first philosophers of Pisa University, who with the tenacity of a snake, in spite of the thousand fold invitation, he would not even look neither planets nor to the moon, or even a telescope. This sort of people thinks that philosophy is a book like "the Odyssey" and the truth, speaking their own words, must be sought not in nature but in comparison of texts.Like laughed out loud if you heard that talked against me in the presence of the Grand Duke of Tuscany the first scientist of the local grammar school, as he tried the arguments of logic, like magic spells, remove from the sky the new planet".
Galilee belongs to the opening of the bright spots of floccules in the Sun, the movement of which is confirmed shortly before he discovered the rotation of the star. All observations described by Galileo in the "Starry messenger".
The ideas expressed by Galileo in the "Starry messenger" does not fit within the Aristotelian worldview. They coincide with the views of Nicolaus Copernicus and Giordano Bruno. Thus, Galileo believed the moon are similar in nature with the Earth, and from the point of view of Aristotle (and the Church) could not be and speeches about the similarity of the . Further, Galileo explained the nature of the "ashen light" of the moon because its dark side is illuminated by sunlight reflected from the Earth, and it followed that the Earth is just one planet, orbiting the Sun.
In October 1610, Galileo made a new sensational discovery: he observed the phases of Venus. The explanation for this could be only one: the motion of planets around the Sun and change the position of Venus and Earth relative to the Sun.
Against the astronomical discoveries of Galileo showered with objections. His opponents - the German astrologer Martin Horky, Italian Colombes, Florentine Francesco Sizzi - nominated purely astrological and theological arguments, corresponding to the teaching of and views of the Church. Soon, however, Galileo's discovery was confirmed. The existence of the moons of Jupiter stated Johannes Kepler; in November 1610 Peiresc in France started regular monitoring. And by the end of 1610, Galileo made another remarkable discovery: he saw the Sun dark spots. See them and other observers, in particular the Jesuit Christopher saner, but the latter is considered the spot small bodies orbiting the Sun. The statement of Galileo that spot should be on the surface of the Sun, was contrary to the views of Aristotle about the absolute incorruptibility and immutability of the heavenly bodies. Saneron Dispute with Galileo quarreled with the Jesuit order. Went in the course of reasoning about the relation of the Bible to astronomy, debate about the Pythagorean (i.e., Copernican) teachings, the embittered attacks of the clergy against Galileo.Even at the court of the Grand Duke Tokunaga were cold to treat the scientist. 23 Mar 1611, Galileo travels to Rome. There was an influential center of Catholic learning, the so-called Roman College. It consisted of scientists and Jesuits, among whom was good mathematics. The Jesuit fathers themselves conducted astronomical observations. The Roman College confirmed, with some reservations, the validity of the telescopic observations of Galileo, and for some time the scientist was left alone.
Upon returning to Florence, Galileo entered into another scientific debate - about swimming telephone At the suggestion of the Duke of Tuscany he wrote on this issue a special treatise - Discourse on bodies, staying in water (Discorso intorno alle cose, che stanno in su l'aqua, 1612). In his work Galileo argued the law of Archimedes mathematically proved the fallacy of the assertion of Aristotle that the immersion of bodies in water depends on their shape. The Catholic Church supporting the teaching of Aristotle, regarded the printing of Galileo's speech as an attack against the Church.The scientist was remembered, and his commitment to the Copernican theory, which, in the opinion of the scholastics, is not consistent with Scripture.
Galileo responded with two letters, bearing clearly the Copernican character. One of them to the Abbe Castelli (student of Galileo) - gave rise to a direct denunciation of Galileo to the Inquisition. In these letters, Galileo was urged to adhere to the literal interpretation of any part of the Bible, if only from some other source should not be "obvious proof" that a literal interpretation leads to false conclusions.This final conclusion does not contradict the view expressed by a leading Roman theologian, cardinal Bellarmine, according to which, if it were found "real proof" of the Earth, in a literal interpretation of the Bible ought to make a change. So against Galileo was not taken any action. However, he realized the rumors about the accusation, and in December 1615 he went to Rome. To defend themselves against charges of heresy Galileo found: prelates and cardinals, even the Pope Paul V received him as an academic celebrity.In the meantime, however, prepared a blow at the doctrine of Copernicus: on 5 March 1616 was published a decree of the Sacred Congregation for the doctrine of faith in which the doctrine of Copernicus was declared heretical, and his work On the revolutions of the celestial spheres were made in the "Index of forbidden books".
The name Galilee was not mentioned, however, the Sacred Congregation instructed Bellarmine "exhort," Galileo and impress upon him the need to abandon the view of the Copernican theory as a real model, not a convenient mathematical abstraction. Galileo was forced to obey. Now he actually could not carry out any scientific work, as in the Aristotelian tradition it is not thought. But Galileo did not accept and continued to gently gather the arguments in favor of the doctrine of Copernicus.
The "dialogue" of Galileo entered the history of science as a symbol of civil courage scholar and as a clear demonstration of the triumph of the teachings of Copernicus about the Universe.
Galileo spent in Padua for 18 years. In September 1610 he returned to Florence and continued telescopic observation. Here he observed Saturn again, as in July 1610 in Padua, saw the star-shaped appendages on the sides of Saturn, and began to ponder about the "tripartition" of this planet. Only in 1655, Christiaan Huygens realized that what Galileo discovered the rings of Saturn.In Florence in October 1610, Galileo discovered the phases of Venus similar to the moon phase. The scientist concluded that Venus and other planets do not Shine but only reflect the light of the Sun. In this phase the planet is changing so that it became indisputable: Venus does not move around the Earth and around the Sun. Then Galileo discovered the Sun dark spots. These spots at the end of 1610 and beginning of 1611, whatever Galileo observed through a telescope an English mathematician, Harrison, Dutch astronomer, Johannes Fabricius , German scientist and Jesuit Christoph Sheiner. All the observers noted that the spots moved across the solar disk from the East to the Western edge. Saner thought spot is a small planet going around the Sun. Fabricius , as Galileo realized that the spots are on a rotating Sun.Therefore, the speed of the spot in the middle of the solar disk more, but when it reaches the edge of the disc - less.
Galileo found that the Central part of the spot is darker than its edges that the spots appear in groups, often occur in two belts on both sides of the solar equator and are never seen near the poles of the Sun.
New discoveries have confirmed the world system of Copernicus. Galileo had a desire to write a great treatise on their observations and of the heliocentric system of the world. In the spring of 1611 he went to Rome to try to convince the Vatican to the fairness of the system of Copernicus, and to seek permission to publish the planned book. In Rome before the papal members of the Board of Galileo, made several reports, he showed the fathers-the Jesuits in his telescope mountains on the moon, satellites of Jupiter, sunspots and the stars of the milky Way.The Roman College confirmed and graciously accepted Galileo's discovery and took it private from charges of heresy. The head of the Inquisition cardinal Bellarmino discussed with the Galileo issue, how should a Catholic to consider the Copernican system in connection with the Bible.
In 1613 Galileo published a book "History and demonstration of sunspots". In this work it is quite definitely spoke in favor of the heliocentric system. Galileo defended his priority in the discovery of spots before Shanera and argued that the spots are not planets, and are on the surface of the Sun. His book was received favorably in the highest Church circles, but at the same time began to operate, the opponents of Galileo.
It so happened that at a dinner party the Duke of Tuscany physicist Boscola presented to the Duchess Cristina, his doubts regarding the theory of Copernicus. The discussion was attended by students of Galileo, the abbé Castelli. He insisted to go to Galilee and to discuss the correlation of the Bible with astronomy. In December of 1613, Galileo wrote a letter to Castelli, in which he allowed himself careless interpretation of the Bible. This letter became widely known and have been met with strong resistance in theological circles. Dominican Caccini at the beginning of 1614has fallen with attacks on Galileo, declaring that the Christian religion is incompatible with the doctrine of the motion of the Earth. A copy of the letter of Galileo enrolled in the Inquisition, which in February 1615 the beginning of the case against the scientist.
In the same year, Galileo wrote a treatise under the title "Letter to Grand Duchess Christina". In it he developed a theory of dual truth: there is truth of science is revealed in the experiments and the necessary evidence is of the truths of faith and religion. It's two different worlds, two separate spheres of the spirit, which are independent from each other. Knowledge - do not judge the whole faith, religion is not the judge of correct science. During Galileo's major claim to a monopoly of truth came only from the Church.
He wrote:
"I think that in the discussion of natural problems we ought to go not from the authority of scriptural texts, but from sense-experiences and necessary proofs. Nature is relentless and never violate the boundaries prescribed to her laws: she doesn't care about whether her hidden causes and methods of creativity the human mind or not. I believe that all acts of nature that is accessible to our eyes or can be understood by logical evidence, should not excite doubt nor be condemned on the basis of texts of Scripture, may even be wrongly understood".
Of course, this letter was initiated by the Inquisition for Galileo. Galileo believed in the strength of his position and the power of his patron Cosimo de ' Medici. In December 1615 he went to Rome to defend himself before Pope Paul V.
On 24 February 1616, the Sacred College of the Roman Inquisition concluded that the doctrine of the motion of the Earth "is false and absurd, formally heretical and contrary to Scripture". 25 Feb cardinal Bellarmino in your own apartment admonished Galileo.March 5, 1616 left a decree that banned the teaching of Copernicus. The heliocentric system was allowed only as a mathematical hypothesis, to more accurately calculate the coordinates of celestial bodies.
In 1623 appeared the book of Galileo "Assay master". He dedicated it to the new Pope urban VIII, and she accepted them graciously. In the spring of 1624, Galileo went to Rome and for six audiences had a conversation with urban. The Pope gave Galileo the gifts, but refused even to hear about the cancellation of the decree of his predecessor. The scientist returned to Florence with confidence that he was able to disperse the clouds over his head.
Galileo had completed work on the first scientific-educational book written in defense of Copernicus, "Dialogue concerning the two chief world systems - Ptolemy and To parnikovoy". The manuscript was ready at the end of 1629, Written in Italian, it was available all the educated Italy. Galileo used the tradition of Plato - interview people of different views. In 1630 he went to Rome to obtain permission for the publication of the book. For the approval of Galileo was sent to Rome only the introduction and conclusion of his book.
In 1632 after a long ordeal, he published his great work, the Dialogues of the two major world systems - Ptolemy and Copernicus (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo ptolemaico e copernicano). Consent to the publication of the book was given by the Pope urban VIII (a friend of Galileo, the former cardinal Maffeo Barberini, who ascended the papal throne in 1623), and Galileo in the Preface to the book, lulling the vigilance of the censorship, said that just wanted to confirm the validity of banning the teachings of Copernicus. His famous work, Galileo wrote in the form of conversations: three characters discuss the various arguments in favor of two systems of the universe - geocentric and heliocentric. The author does not takes sides with any of the interlocutors, but the reader can't doubt that the winner in the dispute is Copernican.
The enemies of Galileo, after reading the book, I immediately knew what I wanted to say. A few months after the exits of the book had received an order from Rome to stop its sale. Galileo at the request of the Inquisition arrived in February 1633 to Rome, where he began the process. He was found guilty of violating Church prohibitions and sentenced to life imprisonment. June 22, 1633 he was forced on his knees, to publicly renounce the teachings of Copernicus. He was asked to sign the report agreed never to say anything that could arouse suspicion of heresy. Taking into account these expressions of submission and repentance, the Tribunal was replaced by imprisonment, house arrest, and Galileo 9 years remained a "prisoner of the Inquisition".
"Dialogues" last four days, it is led by three interlocutors, two untimely dead students, two friends of Galileo - a learned Florentine Philippe Salviati and an inquisitive, ardent Venetian Giovanni Sagredo, who serves as an arbiter in the dispute between Salviati and Aristotelian and scholar Simplicio (Italian "The Prost" ), the person is fictional.
On the first day, the interlocutors discuss the similarity of the earthly and cosmic world, the possibility of the Earth being called a planet. Describes all the observations of the moon that Galileo performed. On the same day they talk about Aristotle's doctrine of the movement. Salviati agrees with Aristotle's assertion that circular motion is the most natural and must be inherent in celestial bodies. (And this was written 23 years after Keplerov's proof of the ellipticity of the planetary orbits!).
On the second day, the rotation of the Earth around the axis is discussed. Salviati and Sagredo note that the movement of the whole is imperceptible for its inhabitants, but it makes it perfectly natural to explain at once the set of observed phenomena. The impassability of the rotation of the Earth with such a property of bodies, which Galileo called "an ineradicably imprinted movement," and Kepler - inertia. On the third day, the conversation is devoted to the revolution of the Earth around the Sun and the structure of the Universe. Discussion begins with estimates of distances to the Moon and the Sun and a review of the properties of optical instruments. Then a case of observing the Medici luminaries and sunspots, the phases of Venus, the direct and retrograde motions of the planets.
Salviati raises the problem posed by the fact that due to the annual motion of the Earth, we should observe the annual displacement of the stars. These shifts, in his opinion, are very small due to the large distance of the stars. They can be detected by increasing the accuracy of the observations and to follow the relative movement of the two close stars that vary in brightness. Superior brightness can be considered more close, then it has an annual displacement of more than more distant stars. Here Galileo describes the method of differential parallax, which is allowed in the XIX century to detect the first parallax stars. From the monologue, Salviati implies that Galileo believes that the stars are at different distances from the Sun, i.e., he actually refuses the concept of the celestial sphere, covered by the fixed stars.
During the Fourth day discusses tides and low tides. Galileo before the end of his days hoping that the tidal phenomena would serve as the decisive physical evidence of two Earth movements - rotation and circulation. During the day the vectors of these movements to a certain area of Land is added, then subtracted. And in the sea water swaying from side to side, as in a swinging bucket.
Passionate, Galileo rejected Kepler's hypothesis about the connection of the tides with the pull of the moon. Salviati says: "But of all the considerable men that turned their thoughts to this amazing phenomenon of nature, I'm surprised more Kepler than any other. How could he when his free way of thinking and deep view of things, Yes, having still in hand the study of the motion of the Earth, to listen with approval to such savagery, as the moon's power over the waters, the hidden qualities, and other fairy tales for children?". But the rules proved Kepler.
In the Foreword to "Dialogue" Galileo covers the irony of his attitude toward the Copernican theory. However, the unprecedented success of the book resulted in extreme irritation of the enemies of Galileo. They convinced Pope urban that Simplicio simpleton depicted by him.
In August 1632, was banned the sale of "Dialogue", but by that time almost all copies already sold. In September, the Sacred College was summoned Galileo to Rome. He was sick, but his request for deferment was rejected. 70-year old man arrived in Rome on 13 February 1633 and stayed at the Villa Medici. The process began in April. Galileo chose the tactics of excuses and evasions, avoided clear statements. But the tedious interrogations, threats of torture had broken him.
Galileo was found guilty of violation of Church taboos and sentenced to life imprisonment. After the verdict he on his knees, made a renunciation of his "delusions." Dad had replaced the prison sentence with reference to the suburban Villa of the Grand Duke. Later Galileo moved to Florence and entered into his own Villa of Arcetri with no exit.
The last years of life of the scientist proceeded under the strict supervision of the Inquisition, Galileo almost was sick all the time and he gradually lost his sight. In June 1637 he became blind in his right eye. However, Galileo still managed to detect and study the phenomenon of libration (from lat. librare "to shake") - rocking of the moon whereby an observer on Earth can see more than half the surface of our satellite. Then there was complete blindness.
In Arcetri the scientist has written a new book "Conversations and mathematical proofs concerning two new Sciences, mechanics and laws fall". He managed to send the manuscript to the French Ambassador in Rome, count de Noel, his former student. De Noel sent a "Conversation" in Holland in the bypass Roman censorship.
"Conversations" was published in Leiden in 1638 as well as the history of statics begins with Archimedes, the history of the dynamics of open "Conversation" Galileo. The conversation continues between the familiar characters of the Dialogue. This time they discuss the free fall of bodies, the swing of the pendulum, the strength of the mechanisms to calculate areas, volumes of telephone Then the interlocutors are talking about the application of the law of the lever in various mechanisms, uniformly accelerated motion, motion of a body thrown at an angle to the horizon, and make sure that the maximum range is achieved if the angle is 45°.Galileo did everything I wanted. 8 January 1642 he died at the hands of his son and closest disciples, Viviani and Torricelli. Pope urban VIII ordered Galileo to be buried in the monastic chapel of the Cathedral of Santa Croce in Florence without honors and tombstones.
85 years later, Florence moved the dust of the Galilee in the crypt of the Cathedral of Santa Croce, and he was laid to rest next to Michelangelo. After 340 years already Pope John Paul II thought about the structure of the Universe, just as Galileo. He acknowledged the persecution of Galileo unfair and dismissed the charges with the great scientist in 1992.
After Conversations Galilei made his last astronomical discovery - he discovered the libration of the moon (a small periodic wiggle of the moon relative to the center). In 1637 Galileo's eyesight began to deteriorate, and in 1638 he was completely blind. Surrounded by the disciples (V. Viviani and E. Torricelli, etc.), he nevertheless continued to work on the annexes to the Conversations and some of the experimental problems. In 1641 Galileo's health deteriorated, and he died at Arcetri on 8 January 1642. In 1737 was executed the last will and Testament of Galileo, his remains were moved to Florence in the Santa Croce Church.
•https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9,_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE
•http://allbiograf.ru/nauka/fiziki/46-galileo_galilei
•http://to-name.ru/biography/galileo-galilej.htm
•http://www.koob.ru/galilei/
•http://society.polbu.ru/hoking_briefhistory/ch14_i.html